Availability

Some things we want to make habits as because of availability, for example, I use particular oil for cooking but that is not at all available in the city, so I tried to change my eating habit because of availability. An animal first responds to a sensory stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal learns to suppress its response through repeated encounters. One example of this can be seen in small song birds – if a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is introduced into the cage, the birds react to it as though it were a real predator, but soon realize that it is not and so become habituated to it. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react to it as thought it were a predator, showing that I is only a very specific stimulus that is being ignored (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). This learned suppression of response is habituation.

Habituation

The decrease in the response to a stimulus when repeated presentation of the same stimulus occurs called as habituation. Habituation is an extremely simple form of learning, in which an animal, after a period of exposure to a stimulus, stops responding. The most interesting thing about habituation is that it can occur at different levels in the nervous system. Sensory systems may stop, after a while, sending signals to the brain in response to a continuously of continued response to strong odors is a common example of sensory habitation. Habituation to complex stimuli may occur at the level of the brain: the stimulus is still perceived, but the animal has simply “decided to no longer pay attention.
Examples
• In a paddy field when a bird approaches the scare crow it will get scared and fly off. But when the bird sees everyday the same scare crow without any movement it will automatically ignore it.
• A snail crossing across a table retracts the body into the shell when the table is tapped. After a pause the snail emerges out and continues moving. The second tap causes retraction again but it emerges out more quickly. So we proceed with the snails response becoming increasingly per functionary until it ceases to respond at all.

Attention and its types

Various authors have classified different types of attention in to different classes. The classification given by Ross (1951) seems to be agreeable for everybody which as follows
Enforce attention
The attention which is aroused because of our instincts is called as enforced attention for example when we remark on the curiosity of a person becomes quiet attentive in his task so the type of attention which he pays at that time is called as enforced.
Spontaneous attention
The attention which we give because of our sentiments is called as spontaneous, the automatic or spontaneous attention towards the idea, person is the example of this.
Volitional attention
In this type we have a fixed goal to achieve that is why we are voluntarily making ourselves attentive. For e.g. sitting in class, writing exam. This is also of two types
Implicit attention
When a single act is sufficient enough to make us attentive is considered as implicit. For e.g to get a good job keeps you motivated for the study.
Explicit attention
When every time the repetition of goal you have to do in your mind to keep you attentive is called as explicit attention. For e.g. some topic in class which you are not interested but important so you will try to be attentive every time in the class.

cognitive capabilities

The cognitive development is defined as the process by which a child understands of the world changes as a function of age and experience. The cognitive perspective focuses on how people think, understand and know about the living environment. The emphasis on learning, how people comprehend and represent, and how our ways of thinking about the world influence our behavior. A more substantial problem is presented by the human propensity to focus on emergency situations to the exclusive of background phenomena which may be more significant. For example, it can be seen in what is considered news where a spectacular auto accident easily outweighs a report on particulate pollution although only a few may have died in the accident while thousands may suffer and die due to diesel pollution. Varieties of cognitive capabilities are there, attention, thinking, evaluation, insight, abstraction, creativity, choice, purpose, planning, generalization, judgment, programming, interest, discrimination, learning, habituation, memory, recognition, retention, knowledge and some of them were discussed in below.

Factors which affect thinking and types of thinking

• Rigidity: The rigidity towards things affects our thinking for e.g. if we think some particular store has had quality stuff we will never try that even if our assumption is not correct
• Mindset: A person with positive outlook will think about positive things and try in same manner
• Interest: we think according to our interest as if you are interested in cricket, if a very good game of base ball is coming on the television you will never think about watching that.
Types of thinking
1. Perceptual or concrete thinking: This is the simplest form of thinking a basis of this is perception people interpret sensation according to ones experience as it is based on concrete objects and events so called as concrete thinking.
2. Conceptual or Abstract thinking: This type of thinking does not require any type of perception it is a process in which makes uses of concepts ideas and language.
3. Reflective thinking: When we try to solve complex problem it is this type of thinking we do, it is re-organization of all experiences and finding new ways of reacting with situations

Thinking

• Thinking is a process by using which we try to solve the problem
• Thinking has a goal
• The process of mental exploration takes place in this rather than motor exploration
• Thinking can shift very rapidly
Tools of thinking
In the process of thinking we mainly use these elements
Images
We think by using the images already present in our mind for e.g. we can say you have to think about a car. Everybody can think on the bases of the image captured by our brain.
Concepts
We make use of logic and concept also when we think for e.g. if you think about abroad visit apart from tour you will think about the other formalities like visa, stay finances and so on.
Symbols and signs
We think according to sign as traffic signals, maps symbols for parking
Languages
Reading and writing literature helps in the process of thinking.
Muscle activities
The more we engage ourselves in thought the greater is the muscular tension we get and when we are relaxed the muscles also gives no response accordingly. E.g. anger our body muscle also reacts with our thought.

Different types of emotions

Emotions can be broadly classified as
1. Positive emotion
2. Negative emotion
• Pleasant emotions are positive emotions e.g. love, joy, happy.
• Harmful to the well being or development of individual are considered as negative e.g. anger, jealous, fear.
The various types of emotions if we talk in elaborate could be many
• Anger
• Love
• Fear
• Happy
• Joy
• Sad
• Painful

These emotions also change with the age
• Emotions of infant
• Emotions of child
• Emotion of adolescence
• Emotions in middle age
• Emotions on old age
The various factors which affect the emotions are
• Environment
• Involvement
• Time
• Circumstances
All these were the outward product of what we think – our own thoughts. Thoughts are the result of what we experienced during the past which chained to our present life and the idea of our future. It’s our MIND.

Emotions

• These are universal.
• Emotions differ form individual to individual.
• A similar kind of emotion can be created by different kind of stimuli.
• An emotion come suddenly but takes its own time to settle down.
• Emotions can pass from open individual to other e.g anger, terror, sad happy.
• One emotion is capable of giving birth to a series of other emotions also.
• Emotions are related with physical and physiological changes.
It is not clear whether emotion is a purely human phenomenon, since animals seem to exhibit conditions which resemble emotional responses such as anger, fear or sadness, and some animals also exhibit similar neural phenomena to humans in tandem with possible emotional response. It has been hypothesized that emotions typical of human beings have evolved and changed in many ways since the species first emerged. Nonetheless, as noted above, it may well be the case that human and non-human animal emotional responses lay on a constant continuum, rather then being two completely distinct categories of human and animal.

Instincts

There are various workers in the field of behavior sciences have given there views , a some common terminologies are rationalism, materialism, but lets not get into this path like this, the basic idea behind to introduce topic is to introduce topic is to introduce you about the one more aspect of the brain. Commonly we define instinct as biological drives or innate propensity especially in lower animals, to seemingly eternal acts. Various people have different emotional involvements, exposure experience, and knowledge related with this. It was Darwin 1859 who first proposed the objective definition of instinct in terms of animal behavior in 1915 famous psychologist Freud, 1915 and McDougall 1908, developed the famous motivational theory of neurosis and psychosis. Some sociobiologist’s and ethnologists have attempted to comprehend human and animal social behavior in terms of instincts. Psychoanalysis have stated that instinct refers to human motivational forces (such as sex and aggression), sometimes represented as life instinct and death instinct. This use of the term motivational forces has mainly been replaced by them instinctual drives.

Innate behavior

Innate behavior refers to the actions of an animal, or human, that isn’t quite described in genes, but they re expressed without prior experience through watching another individual. They are the responses, to a stimulus, that are quickly figured our through an attempt. Since nerves and pathway in the brain are connected through certain regions, then a response which stimulates the area of the original stimulus (desire) through another body region or organ will be remembered. The innate behavior is the use of these connected areas to solve the stimulus response problem. Taste or smell can stimulate hunger. These areas are connected in that eating; causing tasting, together solve the hunger issue. Since just smelling a food causes more hunger, the next closest causes of hunger is probably the pathway to the fix. Simple reflexes are involuntary response of an organism to a specific stimulus. This can be determined by presence of inherited pattern of neurons from spinal and cranial reflex arc.

Behavior sequence

Scientific study of behavior is called as Ethology. When we talk about behavior it is, biological process totally which has a physiological bases. Two different stimuli present in the external environment or it may be inside the body. These stimuli are received by our sensory system which we called as receptors. Effectors the organs which give response to the receptors, muscles and glands make this category. The involvement of the nervous system as knows the electrochemical changes taking place in. Neuron which you have learned in the first chapter takes care of rest of process. Different types of behavior
• Innate
• Learned
Innate behavior inherited by various as well as single cell organism. The complexity patterns are associated with the innate behavior. So innate behavior can be classified into three different categories
• Orientation
• Simple reflexes.
• Instincts will be discussed separately.

Chemo-receptors

Chemo reception correct “is the capability of identifying chemical substance and detect their concentration, every nerve cell is a chemo receptor as it reacts specifically to substances released by the other nerve cell. This mechanism involves the recognition of specific molecules by receptor sites on cell membrane.
• Exteroreceptors detects the presence of chemical in the external environment
• Interceptors detect the presence of substance circulating in body.
Sensitivity toward temperature, s the word thermos also justifies its name. For e.g. fishes have thermos receptors in the skin, and some fishes can respond to a change of even 0.1 degree Celsius. Birds have thermos receptors in skin, there are deep receptor also that can initiate the shivering in the body in general the most advance form of thermos regulation is find in mammals and the brain receives information form many parts of the body, the collective action lets to appropriate activation of warming or cooling whatever needed by the body.

Depth perception

Our understanding of visual perception would be incomplete without discussing depth perception. If we were not able to perceive depth, or third dimension and distance or third dimension and distance we would perceive everything around us to be flat. Depth perception is the ability to space and distance accurately. We need this ability to walk, ride bicycle, threading a needle etc. The fig appears to be three dimensional because the figures are relatively larger smaller circles and squares. But it’s a two dimensional flat drawing. The perception might be wrong at certain cases. The reason is difficult to discriminate the objects look alike, correlating with the nearby object would be giving the fifth object. For example, differentiating the alphabets and numerical is given below. What do you perceive the central figure to be? It will be a alphabet if you look from top to bottom and it will be a number if you look from left to right.